The Concept Of Electromechanical Delay Physical Education Essay

The Concept Of Electromechanical Delay Physical Education Essay Electromechanical delay (EMD) is defined as the time lag between the onset of electrical activity (electromyogram, EMG) and tension development in human muscle (Zhou et al. 1995). It has been suggested that there are several components which are all linked to the generation of force in skeletal muscle. These include the conduction of the action potential along the T-tubule system, the release of sarcoplasmic reticulum, cross-bridge formation between actin and myosin filaments, the subsequent tension development in the contractile component and the stretching of the series elastic component by the contractile component (Cavanagh Komi, 1979). Cavanagh and Komi (1979) suggest that one of the primary causes for the value of EMD is affected by the time necessary to stretch the series elastic component of the muscle to a point when muscle force can be detected. Chan et al (2001) therefore thought the initial length could affect the phase lag and the EMD would be expected to be shorter in a stretched position. Their results showed that the EMD of the Vastus lateralis was shortest at 90 ° of knee extension, compared to 150 ° and 175 °. A study conducted by Norman and Komi (1979) was to test the hypothesis that the rate and change of length of the series elastic component of a muscle was a major contributor to variations in EMD time. They used 10 subjects with an average age of 24.6. They performed a series of horizontal forearm flexion-extensions and extension-flexions at 7 different angular velocities, over two ranges of motion. Two ranges of motion was to determine whether there were muscle length effects on electromech anical delay. Their findings supported the hypothesis that the rate of the muscles series elastic component might be a primary cause for the value of EMD. It was supported primarily for the biceps brachii muscle, where the EMD was shorter in fast eccentric contraction that in any other condition of that muscle. An alternative explanation of a shortened EMD in biceps brachii during eccentric contraction is that in fast stretching, the slow type muscle may be capable of efficient storage of elastic energy and its utilization during the subsequent contraction phase of the stretch shortening cycle (Norman and Komi, 1979). EMD has been found to be influenced by the type of muscle contraction (Cavanagh Komi 1979; Norman Komi 1979) where the biceps EMD were relatively longer in concentric contractions but shorter in eccentric exercise. Norman and Komi (1979) observed different EMD times for the triceps muscles and bicep muscles. The differences in EMD times could be explained by the differences in their fibre structures, with the shorter EMD found in muscles that recruit more fast twitch fibres than those which recruit more slow twitch motor units. It has been discussed that reaction time and electromechanical delay can be enhanced with training (Linford et al. 2006). Linford et al. (2006) conducted a study to determine if neuromuscular training had an effect on reaction time and electromechanical delay of the peroneus longus muscle. A six week training programme was conducted on five males and eight females. The study concluded that the training significantly reduced reaction time, while slightly increasing the electromechanical delay of the muscle. Having a decreased reaction time and electromechanical delay is important for athletes for when the muscles need to activate force as rapidly as possible. Having optimal joint stability is vital during mechanical loading of a joint system, so there is not too much stress being placed on one part of the joint system, decreasing the risk of injury. The results drawn from this study are from the peroneus longus muscle so cannot be directly related to the knee joint. Fatigue It has been suggested that EMD measurement is crucial to have a accurate understanding of the type of central nervous system commands required for the execution of different movements, the role and coordination of muscles in a movement and the apparent anomalies between electromyographical activity (EMG) and body segment motion (Vos et al,1991; Norman Komi, 1979). There have been reports that EMD lengthens after a fatiguing dynamic exercise (Horita, T., Ishiko T. 1987) where as other studies have shown no significant change in EMD after repeated dynamic or isometric contractions (Vos et al. 1991). Zhou, S. (1996) conducted a study to investigate the effects of repeated maximal isometric contractions on electromechanical delay of the quadriceps femoris muscle. Eleven subjects took part, and carried out a one leg fatiguing exercise which was 25 isometric knee extension. Each lasted 8 seconds followed by a 2 second recovery period. His results showed a significant elongation in EMD. This is in contrast to Vos et al. (1991) who did not find any significant effect on EMD after a fatigue trial was carried out on the same muscle group. The different findings could be down to the different exercise protocols or methods used to determine EMD. However in the study by Vos (1991), participants carried out the fatigue trial with a force of 50% MVC, which may be the reason for no significant effect on EMD. Whereas Zhous (1996) participants carried out maximal voluntary contraction. This could mean that the participants in the study by Vos (1991) may not be fully fatigued. Minshull et al (2007) conducted a study which determined what effects an acute bout of maximal intensity static fatiguing exercise would have on voluntary and magnetically-evoked EMD in the knee flexors of males and females. Seven men and nine women participated in this study, taking part in two treatment conditions. One being an intervention condition, where the participants performed a fatigue trial of 30 second maximal static fatiguing exercise of the knee flexors. The second condition was a control, consisting of no exercise. The results showed that in both intervention and control group, males EMD performance was maintained. However the fatiguing trial elicited a 19.5% impairment in EMD performance compared to baseline levels in females. This comes as another finding of fatigue on EMD as Zhou (1996) find a overall elongated EMD, not just specifically in females. This could be down to the different fatiguing protocols, the study by Minshull (2007) may have fatigued the participants more with a longer constant fatiguing exercise. These results may differ because of participant variation. Chan et al (2001) examined the effects of knee joint angles and fatigue on neuromuscular performance. Fatiguing exercise caused a significant lengthening of the EMD of the vastus lateralis and medialis at 90 ° and 150 ° of knee extension. Interestingly the fatiguing protocol did not induce any significant lengthening of the EMD at 175 ° knee extension. This shows that knee joint position affects the neuromuscular fatigue of the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis. b) Temperature Cryotherapy has long been used to treat musculoskeletal soreness, with the expectation that decreased tissue temperature will result in constriction of local blood vessels thus diminishing inflammatory response and oedema associated with musculoskeletal trauma (Sellwood et al. 2009). But what effect will crotherapy and heating muscles have on neuromuscular performance. Many studies have been conducted to examine the effects of manipulating a muscles temperature on fatigue, neuromuscular performance, delayed onset of muscle soreness and metabolic responses (Zhou et al. 1998; Nosaka et al. 2004; Bailey et al. 2007; Dae et al. 1997.) Zhou et al (1998) said that a significant increase in body temperature usually accompanies strenuous exercise. With this exercise, the muscle contractile and elastic properties would be influence due to such a change, which could have an effect on EMD values. Zhou et al (1998) conducted a study which measured Peak force, EMD values and muscle temperature before and after an intermittent isometric maximal voluntary contraction exercise, and investigated the influence of passively changed muscle temperature on EMD and peak force. The muscle temperature was manipulated by placing a plastic bag filled with hot water or cold water over the front thigh area with a intramuscular needle thermistor measuring muscle temperature.. T he EMD was measured at 38, 36, 34, 32 and 30 °C. They found that when the muscle temperature was 2.5 °C higher than the resting level, the EMD increased by approximately 5ms. They also found that EMD was increased when muscle temperatures was either higher or lower than 36 °C. There was a trend found that showed the peak force decreased at a low temperature, however a repeated measures ANOVA did not reveal a significant difference of temperature on peak force. This supports a study conducted by Thornley, Maxwell Cheung (2003) who examined the effects of local tissue temperatures on peak torque and muscular endurance during isometric knee extension. They found temperature has no effect on peak torque, although there was a tendency to decrease when cooled, but was found non significant. However this study did not use a intramuscular needle thermistor, they only measured the skins temperature. Their results may have differed if they used a needle thermometer, as they used heat packs of 55 °C, 34 °C, 22 °C and -17 °C, it would be interesting to see what the muscle temperatures were, to add to the knowledge to show to what extent muscle temperature has on peak force. Nosaka et al (2004) found no change in peak eccentric force of the forearm flexors, within a microwave treatment (muscle temperature increase of 3 °C (37.5 °C)) and a icing treatment (muscle temperature decrease of 7 °C (26.4 °C)). This cannot be related to the knee flexor muscles. Skurvydas et al (2006) conducted a study which assessed the effect of leg immersion in cold water after stretch shortening exercise (SSE) on the indirect indicators of exercise induced muscle damage. The participants muscle contractile properties were recorded before the SSE, then at 4 h, 8h, 24h and 48hours post exercise. There was a control group and a cold group. In the cold group the leg was immersed in cold water (15  ± 1 °C) immediately after SSE and at 4h, 8h and 24h. The leg was immersed twice for each test for 15 minutes with an interval of 10 minutes. They found that cold water immersion reduced muscle stiffness and the amount of post exercise damage after strenuous eccentric exercise, but it had no effect on muscle force. Their results also showed that the leg muscles that had been subject to cold water immersion after SSE, significantly increased the recovery speed of maximal voluntary contraction force (MVCF). MVCF had recovered within 24 hours post SSE. However Esto n and Peters (1999) observed no quick recovery of the maximal voluntary contraction force after cold water immersion. It took 48h to 72 hours post cold water immersion for their subjects MVCF to return to baseline values. This could be because in the study by Skurvydas et al (2006) cooling of the musculature was concentrated up to 24 hours, where as Eston and Peters (1999) applied cooling treatment immediately post exercise and every twelve hours there after, for a duration of three days. Another reason for the differences could be that muscle damage was applied to the leg muscles in the study by Skurvydas et al (2006) and to the elbow flexor muscles in Eston and Peters (1999) study. In contrast, Skurvydas et al (2008) looked at leg immersion in warm water before SSE on the indirect markers of exercise induced muscle damage. The participants muscle contractile properties were recorded, then was sat in a 44 °C water bath for 45 minutes in waist high water. The contractile properties were then recorded again and SSE took place. Contractile properties of the participant were taken at 1h, 4h, 8h, 24h, 48h and 72 hours post SSE. They found that muscle pre warming did not cause any changes in MVCF, and it took over 72 hours for MVCF to recover to pre exercise level. The differences in the findings of these two studies may be purely be down to one study uses hot water, and one uses cold. But in the study using cold water, the participant is immersed in the water immediately after SSE and at 4h, 8h and 24 hours after SSE. But in the heat study the participants were only immersed in the water before the SSE. If the same protocol for immersion was used in the warm water study, a difference may be seen in the recovery of MVCF. A study should be conducted using the same immersion type in cold and warm water conditions, therefore showing more accurate comparisons of what effects different temperatures have on MVCF. Bailey et al (2007) examined the influence of cold water immersion after prolonged intermittent whole body exercise. Twenty men were subjects in this study who were randomly assigned to a cryotherapy or control group. Each participants maximal voluntary isometric contraction of the knee extensors and flexors were recorded using an isokinetic dynamometer pre, immediately after, 1 h, 24 h, 48 h and 168 hours post exercise. Subjects completed an intermittent shuttle test and immediately after the cryotherapy group immersed their lower limbs in a cold water bath (10 °C) for 10 minutes. After the cold bath or rest, subjects completed two maximal isometric repetitions of the dominant limb for 5 seconds for extension and flexion. The results showed that exercise resulted in a reduction of knee flexion peak torque at 24 and 48hours in the cryotherapy group. The control group experienced an even bigger detrimental effect in PF at 24 and 48 hours post exercise. This shows that cold water imm ersion improved recovery of maximal voluntary contraction of the knee flexors 24 48 hours post exercise. This supports the findings from Skurvydas et al (2006) suggesting that cooling the leg muscles increases recovery time of MVCF. However it takes seven days for the MVCF to return to pre exercise values. This is vastly different result compared to Skurvydas et al (2006) and Eston and Peters (1999). This may be because the exercise Bailey et al (2007) uses, is a more dynamic whole body exercise (intermittent shuttle run) as appose to a stretch shortening exercise and a bout of eccentric exercise on the elbow flexors (Skurvydas et al 2006; Eston and Peters 1999). As well as artificially changing participants body temperature or muscle temperature with water immersion or ice / heat packs, studies have examined the effects of passively changing bodies temperature and the effect it has on neuromuscular performance. Morrison, S., Sleivert, G. G., and Cheung, S. (2004) determined if passive hyperthermia impairs maximal voluntary isometric contraction and voluntary activation. Participants quadriceps femoris muscle group was measured for neuromuscular performance, then a submaximal running pace, which was maintained for 20 30 minutes took place in an environmental chamber with an ambient air temperature of ~35 °C. At intervals of 0.5 °C, from 37.5 to 39.5 °C of core temperature, subjects performed a 10 second maximal isometric knee extension, and then during skin cooling back down from 39.5 to 37.5 °C of core temperature Results showed that MVC was significantly influenced by passive heating and decreased significantly to the end of passiv e heating. When the skin cooling was introduced there was no significant change in MVC until the end of the protocol when body core temperature had returned to normal. This shows the primary thermal input causing hyperthermia induced fatigue, when the skin was rapidly cooled by 8 °C and core temperature held stable at 39.5 °C, there was no recovery of MVC. Ranatunga et al (1987) claims isometric force properties are generally not strongly affected by lowering muscle temperature to ~25 °C. Drinkwater and Behm (2007) looked at the effects of 22 °C muscle temperature on voluntary and evoked muscle properties during and after high intensity exercise. Participants performed a series of isometric maximum voluntary contractions of the plantar flexors pre, 1, 5 and 10 minutes after fatigue in both hypothermic and normothermic conditions. In the hypothermic condition, a refrigerating pump circling cold (-3 °C) liquid through a plastic pump was wrapped around the participants leg. Results from the normothermic condition showed a moderate decline in maximal voluntary contraction, but did not show a significant difference between 1 and 5 minutes. Maximal voluntary contraction experienced a significant decrease 1 minute after fatigue in the hypothermic condition, -12%, compared to a -15% in the normothermic condition. There was no significant difference in the recovery of MVC. This supports the findings from Morrison et al (2004) who found no recovery in MVC in a hyperthermic condition. 3 METHOD a) Participants Eleven males {21.4 ( ±1.8) years; 183.5 ( ±6.8) cm; 81.8 ( ±10.2) kg} gave their informed consent to take part in the study, and completed a health screen questionnaire. They each knew that they could cease participation at any given time without providing a reason. Participants had been told not to take part in any strenuous physical exercise 24 hours prior to the experiment taking place. Nottingham Trent University Ethics Committee gave ethical approval. b) Experimental Design Following one habituation session, participants were secured in a supine position in a custom built dynamometer (Gleeson et al. 1995). The experimental design comprised of three treatment conditions: (1) An ice condition that required participants to sit in an ice bath for 10 minutes; (2) a heating condition which required participants to sit in a hot bath for 10 minutes; (3) a control condition were the participant sat on a bench for 10 minutes. The conditions were presented in a random order and separated by at least three days, to prevent any carry over effects. Participants neuromuscular performance (peak force, electromechanical delay) was measured prior to and immediately after each condition, and after a fatigue trial which was performed within each condition. Participants were verbally encouraged during the periods of maximal muscle activation. c) Participant and dynamometer orientation Electromyographic (EMG) activity was recorded from the vastus lateralis of the participants dominant leg during maximal contractions. A standardised skin preparation technique was used (Minshull et al.2007) which included shaving of the area, light abrasion with sand paper and alcohol wiped. This yielded inter-electrode impedance of less than 5 kÃŽÂ ©. The mid belly of the vastus lateralis was palpated and two Bipolar surface electrodes (silver-silver, self adhesive, 10 mm diameter) were applied having a 3cm inter-electrode distance, with a reference electrode placed laterally and equidistant to the recording electrodes. The positions of the electrodes were marked on the leg by ink dots and also on a plastic sheet used to identify the exact positions for the electrodes in each test during the experimental period. Electrodes were re placed on the chosen leg once it had been fully immersed in the hot or cold conditions to prevent malfunctioning electrodes. The correct wires were the n attached from the computer onto the electrodes. Participants were strapped in a supine position on the dynamometer using shoulder belts and with their dominant knee flexed passively at 25 ° (0.44 rad) which was held for the duration of the testing. This knee flexion angle is associated with the greatest mechanical strain on key ligaments (Beynnon and Johnson 1996). The hip extension angle was 60 ° and both angles were checked using a goniometer. The lever arm of the dynamometer was moved into the correct position and was attached to the participants with padded ankle cuffs and adjustable strapping. All other body parts were securely fastened with the appropriate straps. Prior to testing, participants were asked to perform a series of warm up muscle activations, consisting of 1x 25, 50, 75 and 95% of subjectively judged maximal voluntary muscle activation (MVMA). Three 100% MVMA were then performed and recorded. Each contraction was held for 3 seconds, with a 10 second rest between each. d) Water bathing The cooling condition required the participants dominant leg to be fully immersed in a cold water bath at 5  ± 1 ° for 10 minutes. The heating condition required the participants leg to be fully immersed in 45  ± 1 ° water for 10 minutes. The temperature of each bath was continually measured using a thermometer, and adjusted accordingly with either added ice, or hot water to keep the water temperature consistent. The water in the bath came up to the participants iliac crest, making sure the whole of the vastus lateralis was immersed. In the control trial, the participant sat on a bench in the same position they would if they were in the bath. e) Fatigue Trial Once the participants exit the ice, heat bath or bench they are strapped in to the dynamometer and electrodes re placed. Three more 100% MVMA were carried out and recorded, lasting 3 seconds each with a 10 second rest between. A fatigue trial was performed, which consisted of a 30 second MVMA of the knee musculature. Finally three more 100% MVMA were carried out. f) Maximal volitional muscle activation Before each condition took place, the participant was required to have full musculature relaxation prior to the test. The experimenter gave a verbal indication of are you ready and within 3 seconds, the signal for the participant to extend their knee as forcefully as possible against the immovable restraint was GO. The muscle activation lasted for 3 seconds. Verbal encouragement was given when the participant was completing the activation so maximal contraction was achieved. A verbal signal being relax was the cue for the subject to withdraw from the force as rapidly as possible. g) Peak Force Peak force was defined as the highest value that the participants obtained during each of the three attempts. The mean of these maximal contractions was used as the value for peak force. h) Electromechanical Delay Electromyography activity was recorded from the vastus lateralis during maximal volitional contractions using bipolar surface electrodes. The onset of electrical activity was defined as the first point at which electrical signals consistently exceeded the 95% confidence limits of the isoelectric line and with the background electrical noise (Minshull et al. 2007). Electromechanical delay (EMD) was defined as the time delay between the onset of electrical activity and the onset of muscle force above 1N. The mean EMD of the three trials within each condition was recorded. i) Statistical data The results collected from the voluntary muscle activations showed the neuromuscular performance of the vastus lateralis. All data was presented as a group mean  ± standard deviation. A fully repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyse time (pre intervention, post intervention, post fatigue) each index of performance (peak force, EMD) under three separate conditions (ice, heat, control). Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) v.15.0. was used to analyse the data. Statistical significance was accepted at pà ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤0.05. 4 RESULTS a) Peak Force

Healthcare Business Organization Paper

Business Organization Paper Healthcare has drastically changed over the years in the United States. As our population is growing in size, a shortage of the number of health care professionals is also growing. Entrepreneurs have greatly benefited the world of health care by assisting with creating more jobs, producing products and services to assist and meet the growing needs of the population, and starting new business organizations to meet the needs of today’s economy. There are different forms of organizations and choosing the correct one is important, as it will affect the success or failure of the business. Define the Different Forms of Business Organizations Sole proprietorships are an individually owned business where the individual is entitled to all of the profits and also responsible for all of its debts, liabilities, taxes, and claims that may be made toward the organization. Partnerships are businesses started by 2 or more individuals. In this form of business each individual is equally responsible for the liabilities, management, as well as entitled to a portion of the profits. With the different knowledge and skills each member brings to the business will increase the chance of success. Corporations are created by law and owned by shareholders. Rather than actual property, the owners own stock or interest. Through selling stock the corporation can raise the capital o help with establishing business and increase financial gain. According to SCORE Associations (2003), limited liability companies are a â€Å"new and flexible business organization of one or more owners that offers the advantages of liability protection with the simplicity of a partnership, i. e. partners are not liable for business debts† (Para. 3). Explain the Advantages of Each Form of Business Organization Sole proprietorships are the easiest to manage due to the nature of the business and it is also easy to close if needed. Partnership business’s benefit by having shared responsibility in managing the organization and raising funds would be easier with multiple partners in the business. In corporations, according to Naol (2011), the shareholders â€Å"can only be held accountable for their investment in stock of the company† (Para. 6). However when debt raises it can be paid through the sales of stock. Some advantages associated with limited liability companies include creditors can not seize the owner’s personal property, there is no double taxation, and health insurance can be deducted from the income tax. Explain the Disadvantages of Each Form of Business Organization Sole proprietorships place the owner at risk if debts outweigh the profits due to personal property being at risk because of the owner being responsible for all debt and liabilities. This form of business may struggle with the type of employees it draws due to personal funds needed to start the business. If the owner is not available to run the business it is at high risk of failing. In a partnership business because each owner is equally accountable for the liabilities each member will be held responsible for any negative actions by another partner. Because of diversity members may run into disagreements with the management or expenses of the business. According to Business Finance (2011), â€Å"The process of incorporation requires more time and money than other forms of organization† (Para. 3). Taxes may be higher for a corporation, and there are more strict regulations to follow. A corporation may also be sued. Some disadvantages of a limited liability company are that owners are not allowed to have a wage and they must pay self-employment taxes. Define the Appropriate Form of Ownership for an Aggressive Entrepreneurial Firm According to Pullman (2011), the most appropriate form of ownership for an aggressive entrepreneurial firm would be a limited liability business. An entrepreneur who is willing to take risks in the process of being aggressive would be willing to even risk personal wealth and property, which would lead to greater success than entrepreneurs who were not as willing to take such risks. Conclusion The main focus behind marketing and healthcare is business growth and financial gain, and the form of business used plays a critical role in the success or failure of the industry. Through knowledge of the various forms of business and their advantages and disadvantages will lead to the entrepreneur being able to make an informed choice of which business form will best meet their needs to produce a successful venture. References Business Finance. (2011). Types of Business Organizations – Corporations. Retrieved November 19, 2011, from http://www. businessfinance. om/books/startabusiness/StartABusinessWorkbook012. htm Naol, M. , A. (2011), Forming a Texas business corporation. Retrieved November 19, 2011, from http://www. nacollawfirmblog. com/business-transactions/forming-a-texas-business-corporation Pullman, J. (2011). How you structure a new entrepreneurial business matters. Retrieved November 19, 2011, from http://www. streetarticles. com/entrepreneurialism/how-y ou-structure-a-new-entrepreneurial-business-matters SCORE Association. (2003). Common forms of business organization. Retrieved November 19, 2011, from http://www. tulsascore. org/organization. html

The Untold Notions of American History

It is indeed a notable fact that the United States of America has been known to be a naturally independent and self-sufficient country since then. Historians have deliberately suggested that America is isolated from the rest of the world and that it has its own characters, ideologies and events that are all undoubtedly unique.This is the primary reason why American history is taught with the basis of chauvinistic perception- that America is autonomous from the start.If most historians or instructors resolved to that suggestion, Thomas Bender chose to stand up for what he thinks is the truth about America. In his book â€Å"A Nation among Nations: America’s Place in World History†, he persuasively narrated that America’s history must be seen and taught in a broader perspective instead of just focusing on its said â€Å"autonomy†.He proposed that the country’s history shouldn’t be treated as an entirely exceptional account because its triumphs and travails have also been experienced by other countries but in various ways.   Bender presented a more global view of America’s history by providing five key events, which he believes influenced the view of Americans today towards their country.First is the New World’s discovery wherein people from different points of compass arrived and settled in scattered regions of America primarily because of oceanic travel and trade. Next comes the â€Å"age of rebellion† or American Revolution which Bender depicted in the context of competition among empires.He pointed out that the significance of rivalry between Europe and the rise of nationalism in other countries is often neglected when it comes to teaching or retelling America’s history. Subsequently, when countries decided to redefine their core beliefs about the nature of freedom, the Civil War took place. Bender discussed this third event with apt concentration on the violence and cruelty which resulted to million deaths in America.He transparently pointed out that America underwent a violent process to build a strong nation. The fourth point that he tackled was the rise of imperialism which affected America against Spain, France, England, and Germany. The fifth and last point that he discussed was the response of America towards industrialism and urbanization during the 20th century.Bender believed that those five events were really vital in America’s history and that they must be taught in an unbiased manner. Meaning, they must not be desensitized for they contain unnoticed truths about the country. In the final chapter, Bender defied Americans to rethink their twisted notions of America’s history.He believed that viewing America as an â€Å"interdependent history with other histories† is helpful because it will justify the sense of identity of Americans.   Thomas Bender was indeed successful in showing that America has shaped and has been shaped by other countries and that under the power and consistency of America lays a deeply grounded truth: that is indeed a nation among nations.

Essay on John Rawls “Original Position” - 1137 Words

The general concept of Rawls â€Å"original position† is that all social â€Å"Primary Good† should be distributed equally to individuals in a society, unless an unequal distribution favors those less fortunate. Rawls call â€Å"the situation of ignorance about your own place in society the â€Å"original position (242).† Rawls’ theory is in direct response to John Lock’s principles on social contract which states that people in a free society need to set rules on how to live with one another in peace. Rawls’ principles were designed to guards against injustices, which was inflicted upon society, with the help of John Stuart Mills Utilitarianism principle that individuals should act so as to maximize the greatest good for the greatest number. Mills†¦show more content†¦In the priority rules, Rawls escapes the possibility of self-contradiction by acknowledging that there will be situations when his two principles will be at odds with each other. He then suggests the following priorities: 1) under the Priority of Liberty; the principles of justice are to be ranked in lexical order (244); a) a less extensive liberty must be shared by all and; b) a less than equal liberty must be acceptable to those with the lesser liberty; 2) the second principle of justice is lexically before the principle of efficiency and to that of maximizing the sum of advantages; and fair opportunity is before the difference principle. There are two cases: a) and inequality of opportunity must enhance the opportunity of those with the lesser opportunity; and b) an excessive rate of saving must on balance in order to lessen the burden of those bearing this hardship. On the subject of efficiency Rawls states: 1) no system can be called efficient if there is an alternative arrangement that improves the situation of some people with no worsening of the situation of any of the other people and; 2) the system of justice must be brought for th in order toShow MoreRelatedJohn Rawls s Theory Of Justice1471 Words   |  6 PagesJohn Rawls â€Å"A Theory of Justice.† John Rawls was an American political and moral philosopher. Rawls attempts to determine the principles of social justice. In this essay, I will elucidate John Rawls’ views on forming a social contract, the counter-arguments against Rawls’ theory and finally the state of debate on the counter-arguments. John Rawls set out on his discussion on justice and fairness in his book A Theory of Justice 1971. 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Individuals living in harmony for mutual benefit living in a state of society are set out by social contract. This paper will firstly show, the background of the philosophy of so cial justice. Then it will focus on John Rawls Theory of Justice. Secondly, It addresses the stages of the Theory of Justice, It then historical nature of social justice in conjunction with western philosophy. Lastly it will look at the diversity of philosophical and ethical thought. DuringRead MoreJohn Rawls : A Theory Of Justice Essay1339 Words   |  6 Pages John Rawls is a world renowned, American political philosopher of the twentieth century. His views on the state of nature, society, and politics were much more distinct from previous philosophers, and his more modern or progressive life experiences can contribute to the separation between him and others, such as Aristotle, Hobbes, or Rousseau. However, he does have certain ideas and point of views that correlate with the views of those that Immanuel Kant expresses, and more specifically Rawls wasRead MoreJohn Locke And Jean Jacques Rousseau Essay1583 Words   |  7 Pagesreligion, science, economics, goverments and laws. Dating back to 1588,Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) English philosopher, conditional defender of monarchy as the source of civic order (Explorations, 2014).Three philosophers in particular being Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were the key thinkers within the philosophy of social justice, influencing the main idea of a social contract based on their theories, they suggest that the whole of society have been produced by a general social agreementRead More A Theory of Justice Presented by John Rawls Essays1556 Words   |  7 PagesIn A Theory of Justice John Rawls presents his argument for justice and inequality. Rawls theorizes that in the original position, a hypothetical state where people reason without bias, they would agree to live in a society based on two principles of justice (Rawls 1971, 4). These two principles of justice are named the first and second principles. The first is the equal rights and liberties principle. The second is a combination of the difference principle and the fair equality of opportunity principle